by Patrick C. Ryan
(6/5/97)
The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Beng, a Southern Mandé language spoken by some 10,000 people in the Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire), are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language — from the form into which it had developed by about 100K BPE.
This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Africa (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language.
During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of an active-type morphology into a class-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).
Beng shows no signs of the rather common African linguistic phenomenon of classifying prefixes, which suggests that it is among the earliest African languages to separate from the main body speaking the Proto-Language.
Its word order is consistently SOV, what we would expect form any language that preserves early syntax; and there appears, from the account we have in Beng-English Dictionary by Alma Gottlieb and M. Lynne Murphy (1995 - Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Linguistics Club Publications) to be no trace of nominal inflection.
Only a sketch of the grammar was provided with the dictionary, which limits the morphological connections we can make at this time.
The Beng are a very interesting example of the conservative retention of very old language and customs; and I would recommend Professor Gottlieb's description of her experiences with them (which also includes a brief but lucid update of current anthropological theory): Under the Kapok Tree: Identity and Difference in Beng Thought.
In the table below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide.
Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Altaic, Basque, Hurrian, Japanese, Nama (Khoisan), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.
PL/IE/BENG LEXICAL COMPARISONS |
(entries in parentheses are keywords in Pokorny)
(1)"?A-P[?]O ("family-swelling=testicle"), aba, father; (IE awo-s, maternal grandfather)
(2)P[?]FE, be, (animal) tracks, footprints, scab (of a wound); (IE -bh, animal names)
(3)P[?]FO-"$A, in bíbí-le, sting; (IE bhei-, bee; bhei(6)-, hit, *puncture [cf. Old Icelandic bi:ldr, arrowhead ])
(4)F[H]E, fe, wind; (IE we:-, blow, under 10. aw(e)-)
(5)"P[?]A-$E, fá, half; fafa, piece; (IE 1. wi/i:-, apart)
(6)"P[?]A-N[H]A ("starting to split off"), faN-le, strip, shred, split, crack; (IE 8. wel-, rip, rip up, wound)
(7)"K[?]XE-FA ("emptyings"), gbO, feces; (IE g[^]heu-, pour out)
(8)"K[?]XA-N[H]A ("starting to hang"), gbaN-le, shout, cry out, scream; (IE ghel-, call, cry out)
(9)K[?]XE-"?A-$E ("clear-ed-like"), gbE, village; (IE 1. g[^]he:(i)-, be empty, lack)
(10)"T[?]SO-?A-FA ("held+small plural"), jo\, fishing net; (IE dho:[u]-, cord)
(11)K[H]E, ("other"), ka, you (pl. or polite) [ also ke, that (relative pronoun); kE, here
{K[H]E-?A-$E}]; (IE k[^]o-, *here [by you], k[^]{e}i- ");
(12)K[H]E-"NA ("other-one"), kana, this (one); (IE k[^]en-, this, listed under k[^]o-)
(13)K[H]E-"R[H]A ("grey-color"), kala, elderly person; (IE k[^]er-, dark, dirty, gray shades, listed under 6. ker-)
(14)K[H]E-R[H]E-"F[H]A ("becoming gray, aging = growing"); klO, small, little; (IE *k[^]er-w- in Greek k:ros, adolescent, listed under 2. k[^]er-)
(15)K[H]O-RE-"$A ("cover-scratch-ed=exposed"), kli, chief, monarch; (IE 1. krei-, brush over something, move, *skim; k[^]rei-, something like 'shine forth, excel'; cf. Greek kreío:n, noble, princely, ruler)
(16)T[H]O-R[H]A-"$A, ("heat=darken-color-ed"), tri, black; (IE in 8. (s)ter-, in words for impure liquids; offal; dirty, rot)
(17)T[H]E-"F[H]A-"P[?]A-$E, ("contract-ing-piece-like"), tfá, brick; (IE *steub(h)y- in Greek stú:pho:, contract, make dense, hard, taste dry, listed under stew6-, contract, ball itself up); N.B. cognates like Sumerian dub/p, tablet, and Egyptian Db.t (for *dwpi.t), brick, show that brick-making was being practiced prior to 100K BPE!)
(18)T[H]O-"RO, ("swell-very=stiff"), tro, penis; (IE *1. (s)ter-, rigid, be stiff)
(19)["]S[H]A ("satisfied=unmoving"), sa-le, be stuck (as in mud); (IE sa:-, full, satisfy)
(20)"S[H]E-$A-"HHE-$E("ache-sharp(ness)=pain-smoke-like=red"), siÉ, fire (*"painful red one"); (IE sa:i-, pain, sickness, damage (*"fiery, burning") [*"se:y"e:y -> *se:"ye:i -> sye:i -> se:i])
br wp="br1">
(21)"S[H]O-$E ("clan-like=same"), sÉ, all, every; (IE *sei-, *same, under se, one's self)
(22)"S[H]O-F[H]A-N[H]A, ("clan-s-one [animate"]), sON\, person; (IE *sewel-, *clansman, listed under se, one's self; swe-lo-, brother-in-law)
(23)S[H]O ("clan-member"), so, Jula (Northern Mandé); (IE *se, one's self, *same, *clan-member)
(24)S[H]O-N[H]A ("start to follow"), soN-le, flow; (IE 5. sel-, creep, slink [after])
(25)"MA-FA ("breast-definite small plural"), mO, young girl; (IE *mau-to- in Lithuanian mote, woman, wife, listed under ma:tér, mother)
(26)"SA-?E ("strong-eye"), zi-le, be able to; (IE *sey- in Old Icelandic sja:, see, listed incorrectly under 2. sekw-, notice, see, show, originally scent and more recently say)
(27)MO-"HHA-F[H]A-QE ("blood=unclean-water-s-juice"), mwoq, urine; (IE *me:u-, listed under 1. meu-, wet, musty, sprinkle, unclean liquid [also urine], dirty, also wash, clean; *meu(n)g-, *manure, listed under 2. meug-, slip, slippery, slimey)
(28)KX[H]A-"?A-$E-QA (point-top-like-bone), kpÉNq, cane, walking stick; (*k[^]a:nk-, listed under 2. k[^]a/a:k-, branch, stem)
(29)"KX[H]E-$E ("deer-like=fast"), kpÉkpÉ, well, in good health, healthy; (ke:i-, set into motion, be in motion
(30)"P[H]O-F[H]A ("swell-ing"), pop, flabby; (*pe:u-, listed under 1. pu/u:-, blow up, blown up, swollen, billow)
(31)PF[H]O ("stamp"), po-le, wash ("beat"); (IE in 1. peu-, clean, refine, sieve)
(32)"P[H]O-F[H]A ("sniff-ing"), po\-le, be fussy, picky, sort; (IE 2. peu-, investigate, understand, be knowledgeable)
(33)P[H]A-"HHA-F[H]A ("flat-perfective-...tening"), pu-le, open (something); (IE pe:u-, beat, sharp, strike cuttingly; in paus-, let loose, release)
(34)HHO-"F[H]A-"RO-FA ("sun=heat...-ing-part-s"), wlu, heat, warmth; (IE in *ewer[ew]- in 12. wer- (for *we:r-), burn, burn up, blacken)
(35)FA-"N[H]A-$E ("around-vibrate-like=quivering"); viN-le, love, want; (IE in wle:(i)-, listed under 2. wel-, want, choose)
(36)K[H]O-RE-?A-(N[H]A) ("[start to...]cover-made"), kla[N], thief; (IE kra:[u]-, cover up, hide)
(37)T[?]SA-"N[H]A ("long-vibrate=stretch"), jaN, far away; (IE *5. del- (for *dhel-), long
(38)T[?]SE-"RE-$A-QE ("release-made-juice=liquid lost by dripping"), jrÉq, completely dry; (IE *dhrei(n)g- in English dry; cf. 4. (dher-), sprinkle, besprinkle; 5. dher-, rubbish, defecate)
(39)TS[H]E-F[H]A-QE ("bristl[e]-ing-congeal=stiff"), cOq, erect, long; (IE *steu(n)g- (cf. Old Indian tuñjáti, presses, pushes), *stiff, listed under B. (s)teu-g-, under 1. (s)teu-, push, hit)
(40)TS[H]E-$E-N[H]A, ("start to...bristle-like=stick=sharp"), céN, bitter; (IE *steil-, *sticking, listed under (s)tei-, pointed)
(41)P[?]FO-"HHE-HHE ("[from]leg=flame-always going"); biE-le, shine, be lit, be illuminated; (IE *bha:i-, listed under 1. bha:-, gleam, illuminate, shine)
(42)P[?]O-FA-"$E-QO, ("swell-ing-sack"), bq, ball (as of futu); (IE *beu[i](n)g-, listed under 2. b(e)u-, blow up, swell)
(43)P[?]FA-"N[H]A-F[H]A, ("be start-ing...stand out"), bON, black pagne leaf; (IE bhleu-, blow up, swell)
(44)P[?]O-"R[H]E-$E ("bubble-flew-like"), blé, alcohol, drink; (IE bhre:i-, listed under 2. bher-, well up, of welling or boiling water [also of the effervescence when brewing, cooking, as well as from fire], move one's self strongly)
(45)"P[?]FA-N[H]A ("prominent-move back and forth"); baN-le, chat; (IE 6. bhel-, resound, orate, shout, roar; but cf. the related root bha:-, *speak together)
(46)"P[?]FA-NA-K[?]XA-"FA ("chin=front-one: (definite singular)-hang-ing=shoulders"), bàq, upper arm, wing; (IE *bha(n)ghu- [cf. OHG buog, shoulder], listed under bha:ghú-s, elbow and forearm)
(47)XA-?A ("swallowed=moved through having been squeezed=born"), ba-le, bear fruit; (IE g[w]a:-, go, come, come into the world, be born)
(48)XO-"N[H]A ("squirt-move one's self"), baN-le, fall (as rain); (IE 2. g[w]el-, drip down, overflow, well, throw [probably to be connected under 'let fall', intr. 'fall down'])
(49)X[H]O ("school of fish=unknown quantity (indefinite large plural), po, something, thing; (IE k[w]o-, somthing, what?)
(50)X[H]E-"R[H]E ("curl around itself=circle-come=revolve=be exchange-d"), pleble-le, sell (something); (IE in k[w]rei-, buy; *sell)
(51)?E + FA ("see-there-3rd person deictic + imperfective"), O, he, she, it (with present tense); (IE 3. e-, the, he + imperfective -u; 4. au-, that)
(52)?E + $A ("see-there-3rd person deictic + perfective"), E, he, she, it (with past tense); (IE ei-, listed under 3. e-, the, he + imperfective -i; 4. au-, that)
(53)"X[H]A-$E-"$A ("squat-like"), pi-le, exacuate from the body; (IE in k[w]ey6-, comfortably rest)
(54)XA ("slit=female genital region"), ba, earth; (IE *g[w]a- in g[^]dhem-, earth, ground floor)
(55)XE ("bristling=intimidating"), be, big, large; (IE in g[w]ey6-, overpower, power, press down forcefully)
(55)XA-"RE ("swallow-make"), ble-le, eat; (IE 1. g[w]er-, swallow, esophagus)
(56)T[?]O ("lump"), do-le, construct (a house); (IE in 2.deu-, honor, guarantee, honorable, powerful, *do [Germanic *taujan])
(57)T[?]A-"FA ("giv(e)-ing"), da\-le, help (out); (IE in d6u-, listed under do:-, give)
(58)T[?]A ("seep"), da-le, deflate, go down (swelling); (IE in da:-, liquid, flow, *drip)
(59)M[H]A ("activity at"), in maN, on, about, near, next to, than; (IE accusative in -m); (cf. Egyptian m, on, in)
(60)MA ("full, ripe"), mama-le, ripen, be ripe; (IE 2. ma:-, good, in good time, rightly timed, *ripe)
(61)Q[H]A ("cat"), ña-q, cat (<-Jula?); (IE *(n)ka- in 2. kat-, throw animal young, animal young, *cat); the final -q is possibly PL QO, skull, as an animal suffix
(62)K[?]XA-"FA ("hang-ing"), gbo, also; (IE g[^]ho:- (for *ghwa-), behind, after, on account of)
(63)Q[H]E-"$E-N[H]A ("start to...lizard-like=cool"), ñí-lé, be cool, cool down; (IE *(n)k[^]eil- in 1. k[^]el-, freeze, cold, warm [through 'burning'])
(64)Q[H]A-"N[H]A-$E ("start to...hump-like=dry out"), ñá-lé, be healed, be done/finished with something; (IE *(n)kely-, listed under 3. (s)kel-, dry out, dry)
(65)NO ("stomach"), in nN, stomach; (IE in 1. (enebh-), embh-, ombh-, no/o:b- (ne:bh-?), m:bh-, navel)
(66)NO ("passion"), in no-le, pleasure; (IE in nei-to-, ni:-tu- (for *no/o:i-to- - cf. Welsh nwyd, passion), passion, listed under 2. nei-, nei6- : ni:- (for *no:i-), be moved animatedly, be excited, shine)
(67)Q[H]A-N[H]A-"$A ("start-ed to...hump"), ñi-le, lean on; (IE *(n)kely-, listed under 4. (s)kel-, bend, lean on, bent)
(68)QO ("skull=animate creature"), qa [a for o because stress-unaccented], they (+imperfective FA=qO, they [present/future]); (cf. also qlu, head = IE 1. ger-, put together, collect, *clump; PL QO-RE-FA, putting in a skull=pot?); (IE for 'skull', gag-, something round, clumpy); (cf. also Sumerian ga-10, I; 'skull'must have had the significance of 'animate creature')
(69)QO-HHO-F[H]A-"RO ("skull=coal-heat-ing-very), qwau-lé, burn (intr.); (IE *geu-ro-, listed under g(e)u-lo-, glowing coal)
(70)"QA-FA ("semi-circular-definite small plural=two half-circles=ring"), qa\, ring; (IE *g6u-, listed under ge:u-, bend, crimp, arch)
(71)PF[H]A ("fat"), papa-le, expand; (IE in pey(6)-, be fat, be full of something)
(72)"PF[H]E-R[H]E ("jump-fall=jump up and down"), pelepele, hop; (IE 1. sp(h)er-, twitch, kick away with the feet, wriggle, shoot out of)
(73)"PF[H]E-RE ("jump-make=cause to flare up"), pele, blow, fan a fire; (IE 1. sp(h)er-, flare up, kick away with the feet, wriggle, shoot out of)
(74)"PF[H]O-$E-N[H]A ("start to...stamp-speak"), pE-le, say (something), speak (about >something); (IE *peil-, listed under (s)pel-, speak loudly and emphatically)
(75)"P[H]A-$E-R[H]A-"F[H]A ("flat-like=wing-fly-ing"), pEl-le, fly; (IE *pyerw-, listed under B. per-, per6-, lead or bring or come over over, set over, force through, fly)
To investigate these correspondences in detail, see the
Consonants
p, f, b, v, kp, gb, mgb(1), t, s, d, z, c, j, k, g, m, n, ñ, q, N, l (*r), **rrr, y, **h, w
Vowels
e, E, i
a
o, O, u
All vowels may be nasalized.
Stress-accented vowels are retained.
All stress-unaccented vowels become a or are lost.
Tones
The five tones of Beng are: high (á), mid (a), low (à), falling (a\), and rising (a/).
The high and rising tones are connected with reflexes of *y;
and the low and falling tones are connect with *v.
Modifications in Combination
For modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the
SUMMARY OF PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES FROM PL TO BENG
Assumptions
1. Palatal and velar glides were lost;
A. Except ñ;
2. Glottalized consonants were de-glottalized, and voiced except P[?], which was spirantized:
P[?] -> f; T[?] -> d; K[?] -> g;
P[H] -> p; T[H] -> t; K[H] -> k
3. Glottalized affricates were de-glottalized, and voiced;
A. in the labial series: P[?]F -> b; PF[H] -> p
B. in the apical series, the resulting affricates were palatalized: T[?]S-> j (/dzh/); T[H]S -> c (/tsh/)
C. in the dorsal series, the resulting affricates were modified by being compounded with the corresponding labial stops: K[?]X -> gb; KX[H] -> kp
4. Nasals remain; aspirated nasals are de-aspirated: M/M[H] -> m; N/N[H] -> n; Q/Q[H] -> q
5. Spirants remains except the velar spirants are modified to labial stops; non-aspirated spirants are voiced: F -> v; F[H] -> f; S -> z; S[H] -> s; X -> b; X[H] -> p
6. The laryngal stop, ? becomes 0;
7. The voiced pharyngal fricative, $, becomes y;
8. The voiceless pharyngal fricative, HH, and the voiceless laryngal fricative H, became 0 but retained the palatal glide [y] before e and the velar glide [w] before a and o.
9. The trills, R and R[H], become l (with the allophone r).
In order for readers to judge the semantic plausibility of the analysis of Proto-Language (PL) compounds suggested here, I am including access to a table of Proto-Language monosyllables and the meanings I have provisionally assigned.
Most assignments can be exhaustively supported by data from actually attested forms but a few animates are very doubtful; and this list does not represent the "final" solution of these questions, which will only be approached when other scholars assist in refining it.
Patrick C. Ryan
Summer 1997
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca and Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco. 1995. The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution. New York etal. Helix Books. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Ehret, Christopher. 1995. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. University of California Publications in Linguistics: Vol. 126. Berkeley and Los Angeles. University of California Press
Erman, Adolf, and Grapow, Hermann. 1971. Wörterbuch der Ägyptischen Sprache. Berlin: Akadamie-Verlag
Faulkner, Raymond O. 1962. A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Oxford: University Press
Klimov, Georgij A. 1977. Tipologija Jazykov Aktivnogo Stroja. Moscow: Nauka
-------------------------1983. Printsipy Kontensivnoi Tipologij. Moscow: Nauka
Pokorny, Julius. 1959. Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Volume I. Bern and Munich: Francke Verlag
the latest revision of this document can be found at
HTTP://WWW.GEOCITIES.COM/Athens/Forum/2803/comparison.BENG.1.htm
Patrick C. Ryan * 9115 West 34th Street - Little Rock, AR 72204-4441 * (501)227-9947
PROTO-LANGUAGE@WorldNet.att.net
1.
this phoneme appears to be realized as /ngm/.