PHONEMES
by Patrick C. Ryan
(7/6/97) revised(1)
The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Japanese are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language --- from the form into which it had developed by about 55-60K BPE.
This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Southeast Asia and Australia (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language.
During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of a class-type morphology into an ergative-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).
Japanese minimally shows the effects of the phenomenon of atonic adfixes used as "classifiers", which suggests that it is among the earliest Southeast Asian languages to separate from the main body speaking the Proto-Language --- at a time when these adfixes were either not mandatory or were more loosely bound --- contrasting with many other languages of East Asia, e.g. ([Sino-]Tibetan, where these adfixes have been bound to their nouns). The common Asian "classifier", an unbound adfix, used with nouns is a significant vestige of the class-type stage.
Its word order is consistently SOV, what we would expect from any language that preserves early syntax.
What is enormously exciting about Japanese is that it separated from the main branch of the Proto-Language before the stage of development (Pontic) in which the oldest semantic contrasts of CE / CA / CO were replaced by CyV, C(-)V, and CwV, the superscripts indicating semi-consonantal glides or no glide.
Therefore, in open syllables ( in the absence of a following /j/ or /w/), Japanese preserves the original vowel quality of the Proto-Language intact.
In the Table of Correspondence found after the listing of lexical cognates below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide (during the Pontic stage).
Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Afrasian (Egyptian and Arabic), Altaic, Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Hurrian, Nama (Khoisan), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.
(IE entries in parentheses are keywords in Pokorny unless marked by *)
[page numbers after Old Japanese entries are references in Miller]
NOTE: Several items listed in the former version of this essay have been identified as
definite Chinese loanword, and deleted; to see them with their original numbering, press here.
(1)TS[H]A-TS[H]A, *'ta:t(a:), stand (-> MJ táts-u; 65); (IE s+t(h)a:, listed under sta:-)
(2)P[?]FO-NA-$E, *Fo'ne (<- Fo'nai), bone (-> MJ hon; 61 {*po:ne}; 63); (IE *bheny-, related to Germanic *ba(i)na)
(3)TS[H]E-$E-TS[H]E-$E, *ti'ti (<- *tye'tye <- *teyete'ye), breasts (-> MJ *chichí, milk; 63); (IE *ti-ti, listed under tata)
(4)P[H]FO-F[H]A (blowing), *'FoFo (better: *'FoFa:; but also possible P[H]FO-P[H]FO, "always blown up" -> OJ * popo), cheek (-> MJ ho; 63); (IE pou-, listed under 1. pu/u:-)
(5)P[?]FA-RE-?A, *'Fari (<- *'Farya<- *'Fare[y]a <- OJ *pari), needle (-> MJ hári; 67); (IE bhre:i-)
(6)FO-NO (curls+basket=plural) (OJ *wono -) *'F1ono, ax (-> MJ no; 87); (IE wen-; the idea is the tool that makes wood-"curls" = chips while cutting)
(7)$E-F[H]A-P[?]FE-$E ($E, 'abdomen + web-like' [OJ *Fobi]), *'yau:bi (<- *'ya:F1bye <- *ye'F1a:beye), belt (-> MJ bi {cf. Shuri ?u'bi};87); (*awebhy-, {basis 5. aw-} for webh-; )
(8)?A-FA-T[?]SO-$A (family-circle=property-held), *aF2a'ja (better: *awa'ja), parent (<- awa'dya <- *awado'ya) (-> MJ oy {cf. Shuri ?u'ja}; 87); (*audh(y)- {in Welsh udd, lord}, listed incorrectly under 5. aw-; cf. Egyptian iw'w, heir) ; (but possibly OJ *oya from HHO-$E, "procreate", seen in IE eibh-, and Egyptian hi, "husband")
(9)FA-RO, Faro, far distant (OJ *faro-> MJ *; *); (IE wero-s, listed under 9. wer-)
(10)$E, *ye, stomach (OJ *yi rather than *wi -> MJ i; *); (IE [y]e{n}-, *in e/in-to-s, intestine, listed incorrectly under 1. en-)
(11)$E and $E-FA (speaking), *ye / *yew1, speak (i+u -> MJ iu, id. / yu+u -> MJ yu-u, id.); (IE in ya:-, speak (excitedly); and 2. yu/u:-, outcry, especially rejoicing); (the reconstruction of OJ *ip-, I believe should be corrected to *yew but possibly it stands for $E-HA -> IE ya: = OJ *ih-)
(12)$O-FA, yu, tie (yu+-u -> MJ yu-u, id.; *); (IE 2. yeu/u:-); (a reconstruction of OJ *yup, I believe should be corrected to *yu but possibly *yug-, corresponding to IE yeug-)
(13)KX[H]A, OJ *ka(:), mosquito (-> MJ ka(*a); 201); (IE in 3. ka/a:i-, heat (*burn, as a subjective phenomenon (KX[H]A-HA, burned); ka:u-, hit (KX[H]A-F[H]A, burning)
(14)PF[H]A-HA-$E, ('fat-stative-like'), *Fa:'e, grow, in (-> MJ ha-ru, id.); (IE in 3.sp(h)e:(i)-, prosper, spread one's self out = become fat, proceed, have success, succeed)
(15)K[H]O, OJ ko, child (MJ ko, id.; 176); (IE -ko, diminutive; in *koi-na, nest, listed incorrectly under 1. k^ei- [cf. Japanese -ke, home, family])
(16)P[H]O-NA, (OJ pana ->)*Fana, nose (-> MJ hana, id.; 84); (IE pneu-, pant, breathe)
(17)
(18)K[H]E-F[H]A-QO-$E, OJ *'ka:ge (<-'kwa:goi) shadow (-> MJ káge; *);(IE *(s)keu(n)gi- in Old Icelandic skuggi, shadows, listed under 2. (s)keu-)
(19)FA-'$E, (OJ wi-)*Fi, reed (-> MJ i, id.; 201); (IE 1. wei-)
(20)SA-Q[H]A, OJ *saka(:), sloping hill (-> MJ sak, id.; *); (IE *sank-, listed under sak-)
(21)SA-QA(-RO) in OJ *sagar-, hang down (-> MJ sagár-u, id.; *); also sagé-ru, hang down (transitive); (IE sengw-)
(22)S[H]A-MO (stay-overall), *sa:mo, as though, if (-> MJ sámo, id.; *); (IE 2.sem-)
(23)SO-$E, *so'i, back, ridge -> OJ *se -> (-> MJ se, id.; *); (in Egyptian s{i}3 [cf. Coptic soi, back)
(24)
(25)SO-$A-P[?]O-FA (pulled-bubbles), *'shabu-, suck, chew (<- *'syabou-) (-> MJ shabu-ru, id.; *); (IE seib- {English sip}, listed under seip-)
(26)SE-$E-P[?]O (emission-like-bubble), shibo-, press out, wring out, squeeze (*'syibo) (-> MJ shibo-ru, id; *); (IE seib-, listed under seip-)
(27)SE-$E-M[H]A, OJ *sima (better: *syima:), island (-> MJ shimá, id.; 65; cf. shimeru, get damp/wet); (IE sei-mo-, listed under sei-)
(28)
(29)SA-F[H]O (strong-wind), OJ *suf- -> *su-, breathe, inhale, sip (-> MJ su-u, id. *); (IE su:-, listed under 1. seu-)
(30)?A-M[H]A-$E (top-being=superior-non-past [see (A5)]), OJ *ama-i, sweet (-> MJ amai, id.; *); (IE in *a:mel-, sweet, in Albanian ambl, sweet, listed incorrectly under om-, om-, raw, bitter); (cf. Egyptian im(3), kind, gentle, well-disposed, pleasing, be gracious, delighted, charmed)
(31)T[H]E-R[H]A-S[H]A, OJ *teras-u, shine on, shed light on (-> MJ teras-u, id.; *); (IE teros-, listed under 2. ste/e:r-; note ste:ra:)
(32)TS[H]O-F[H]A (revolving), OJ *to(:), door(-post); (-> MJ to, id.); (IE in ter-; cf. torii, open front gate of shrine)
(33)
(34)TS[H]O-F[H]A-KX[H]A (revolving-puncture, OJ * tuk-u, pierce (-> MJ tsuk-u; id.; *); (IE s+teuk -, listed under 1. (s)teu-)
(35)?A-MA, *ama, nun, female (-> MJ ama; in Amaterasu, Mother Star; *); ( IE am[m]a)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)SE-FA (excretions), *sew1a, vinegar -> OJ su- (-> MJ su, id.; *); (IE su/u:- in su:- ro-)
(40)KX[H]E-(R[H]E-)KX[H]E-R[H]E ([like a]deer-come), OJ *kake:r-u, run (-> MJ kakér-u, id.; *); (IE s+kre:-, listed under 2. (s)ker-); if the root is OJ *kake(:)-, this would be PL KX[H]E-KX[H]E, IE 1. k[^]ak-, "jump, pour forth from, romp about powerfully"
(41)K[H]E-$E-FA-RO (shadow-like-plural-very), *kyuro, black -> OJ *kuro (-> MJ kuro, id.; 197); (IE *k[^]i-wo-ro, listed under 2. k[^]ei-); (cf. Egyptian Hw3, rot [blacken?; *ki sometimes appears in Egyptian as H; 3 = R[H]A, color])
(42)FO-RE, OJ *w1or-, bend (-> MJ ór-u, id.; 87); (IE 3. wer-)
(43)P[?]A-RE, OJ *war-, split (-> MJ war-u, id.; *); (IE 7. wer-)
(44)S[H]E-$E-NA, *sye:n-, die -> OJ *sin- (-> MJ shin-u, id.; *); (IE *se:in-, *cease, *desist, listed under 2. se:(i)-)
(45)SA-?E-RE ('strong-eye-apply'), *sa('y)er-, know -> OJ sir- (-> MJ shir-u, id.; *); (IE in (se:-(w-) [-FA, 'strong eyes'; [cf. Uralic Nenets sw, eye], listed under 2. sekw-; possibly); (cf. Egyptian zi3, recognize [SA-?E-RE])
(46)T[?]E-R[H]E, OJ *der(e:)-, go out, leave (-> MJ dér-u, id.;*); (IE dra:-, listed under 3. (der-))
(47)HA-R[H]A-$E (air-color-like), *ha'ra:i-, gets clear (-> MJ har-ru, id.; *); (IE *ar- in ar(e)g[^]-; a/a:ier-, a/a:ien, day, morning); if the root is correctly reconstructed as OJ *par(e)-, this would correspond to PL PF[H]A/E-R[H]A ("fat/spark-color"), IE 1. sp(h)er-, "jerk, *flicker -> *light up
(48)?E-M[H]A-(RE) ('eye-activity-apply'), *mir-u- (re-analyzed as mi-ru), sees, looks (-> MJ mi-ru, id.; *); (IE *Hme(r)- -> me:/ir-, listed under 5. me:-; cf. Latin mirare; cf. Egyptian (i)m3, see); but possibly OJ *mi-ru, MA-$A ('full-eye') -> "see"
(49)Q[H]E-$A-Q[H]E-$A ('all itched, scratched'), *ke:'yake:ya-, write -> *kyaky- -> OJ kak- ( -> MJ kák-u [perfect kai-ta];*); (IE in kaik[^]-[<- k[^]aik[^]y <- k[^]ai-k[^]ai], scratch, comb); {note: this suggests the Japanese were using a medium for writing before brushes}
(50)Q[H]E-$E ('itchy, scratchy' = 'comb'), *'ke:i, hair -> OJ ke (-> MJ ke, id.; *); (IE in kais- [Q[H]E-$E-SO, ..pulled])
(51)KX[H]O-$A ('cut'), *ko:'i, tree, *lumber -> OJ ki (-> MJ k, id.;*); cf. ki-r-u, cut; (OJ *kir-; IE in kaito-)
(52)KX[H]O-$A-RE, *ko:'ir-, cut -> OJ kir- (-> MJ kír-u, id.; *); (IE s+ke:i- in ske/e:i-; *keir-in Greek kero: and Albanian shkjer, listed under 4. (s)ker-)
(53)HA-NA-SE, *h1a:nas-, speak (-> MJ h(1)ans-u, id.; *); (IE 3. an6- + -s, in ansu-)
(54)HA-F[H]O-S[H]A ('wind-blow-state'), "h1au:sa:-, dry, empty (-> MJ h(1)ós-u, id.; *); (IE (a)we:s-, "*cool", listed under 10. aw(e)-, "blow, sigh, breeze"); if the OJ is attested as *pos-, this suggests that OJ p- had become /h/, and was available for employment in roots that did not originally have labials
(55)HHE-$E, *h1e:'ye, fire, flame (-> MJ h(1)í, id.; *); (IE 4. a/a:i-); if the OJ is attested as *pi, this might be derivation from PL PF[H]E-$E, "spark-like"
(56)HHO-$A-RO-FA (heated-part-plural), *h1o:'iru, daytime ->*hwiru -> OJ *firu (-> MJ h(1)iru, id.; *); (IE in erkw-; *ari-, listed under a/a:yer/n-); (cf. Egyptian hrw, day)
(57)HHO-$A, *h1o:'i, sun, day, time -> *hwi -> OJ *fi (-> MJ h(1)i, id.; *); (IE 4. a/a:i-)
(58)HA-$E-R[H]A(-$E) (air-like-color-like=clear), *'h1ya:ra:i (<- *'h1a:yera:ye), fine, fair weather (-> MJ h(1)áre, id.; *); (IE a/a:yer/n-); if the OJ is correctly *par(e), see (47) above
(59)HA-F[H]A-$E-RO (air-s-like=empty-very), *h1a:u:i'ro-, wide, roomy -> *hwiro -> OJ *firo (-> MJ h(1)iró-i, id.; * [cf. h(1)eyá, room; h(1)e-komu, become hollow]); (IE 5. er-); if the OJ is attested as *piro, then this might relate to IE 2. (s)p(h)er-, *spread (PF[H]A-$E-RO, "fat=wide?")
(60)
(61)NO-M[H]A (stomach-hold), OJ *nom-, drink, swallow (-> MJ nóm-u, id.; *); (IE 1. nem-)
(62)NO-RE ('basket-make'='saddle?'), OJ *nor-, ride (-> MJ nor-u, id.; *); (IE 2. (s)ner-)
(63)N[H]A-F[H]A (waving), *nu-, sew (-> MJ nú-u, sew; (IE s+ne:u-, listed under sne:u-); if the root is attested in OJ as *nup-, this might be a variant of IE sne:u-in -p, corresponding to IE *(s)ne:up-, listed under (sne:p-), "twist into a cord" (-P[H]A adds the notion of small intransitive movements)
(64)N[H]A-F[H]A-M[H]A, *na:u:ma:, swamp, bog -> OJ numa (-> MJ numá, id.; *); (IE leu-mo-, listed under 1. leu-; cf. also la:ma:)
(65)N[H]A-M[H]A-$E, *na:ma:'i, wave -> OJ nami (-> MJ namí, id.; *); (IE *lem+dh-, listed under 1. lendh-)
(66)PF[H]E-$E-KX[H]O-$E ('sparkling-shell'), *F1e:i'ko:i -> *hye:-'koi , honorific title (-> MJ *i'ko:i + -i (-$E, -like) -> in ikii [metathesis], power; 20); (IE s+phe:[i]-ko, strength, listed under 3. sp(h)e:i-)
(67)?E-R[H]A (eye-rise), *era:-, great, eminent (-> MJ er-i, id.; *); (IE 3. er-)
(68)P[H]A-N[H]A-RA (flatten-back), *'F[n]a:ra, plain (*Fa:'na:ra) (-> MJ hára, id.; 9); (IE pla:-ro-, listed under pel6-)
(69)TS[H]A-KX[H]A-M[H]A, (stand up-stick-activity = raising), OJ *ta:ka(:)'m(a:), raise (-> MJ in takamá-ru; id.; 9); (IE in s+ta:k-, listed under sta:k-)
(70)T[H]E-R[H]A, OJ *'te:r(a:)-, shine (-> MJ tér-u, id.; *); (IE te:ra:, listed under 2. ste/e:r-)
(71)T[H]A-R[H]E, OJ *ta(:)'r(e:)-, drip, drop (-> MJ tar-ru, id.; *); (IE 8. (s)ter-)
(72)TS[H]O-F[H]A-R[H]E, *'to:F1a:re:-, get through (-> MJ tor-u, id.; *); (IE 1.twer-); if this word is attested in OJ as *topor-, then this derivation fails
(73)T[H]O-R[H]E, OJ *'to:r(e:), take, steal (-> MJ tór-u, id.; *); (IE s+ter-, listed under 3. ster-)
(74)T[H]A-RA, OJ 'ta(:)r-, become slack, loose (-> MJ tar-um-u, id.; * [for -um-, see #110, 'bear, *become'); (IE 1. ter-)
(75)
(76)T[?]A (hand), *da, is (at) (-> MJ da, plain present of desu, it is); (IE de-)
(77)MO-R[H]E, OJ *mor(e:)-, leak {noun} (-> MJ moré, id.; *); (IE 4. mer- [*bleed]; in meregh-; in 1. merk-)
(78)T[?]A-N[H]A-QA-?A ('pull (out)-kink'='straighten'), *dna:'ga:-, long -> OJ naga- (-> MJ nag-i, id.; *); (IE (d)longho-s, listed under 5. del-)
(79)NE-$E-P[?]A-RO, *neibar-, to be sticky (-> MJ nebar-u; *); (IE leib-ro, listed under 3. lei-)
(80)
(81)NA-$A-T[H]A (rock-stone-loosen=chip edge), *nyata, hatchet (<- *na'yata)(-> MJ nata, id.; *); (IE s+neit-, listed under sneit-)
(82)N[H]O-RO, *n:o'ro-, slow (-> MJ nor-i, id.; *); (IE s+ler-, listed under (s)lrg-; Norwegian slora, listed under (s)leu-)
(83)MO-FA-SE-$E ('poison-emit-like') *'mousye, worm -> OJ musi (-> MJ mushi, id.; *); (IE mus-, listed under 2. mu/u:-; (cf. Sumerian mush, snake)
(84)HHA-F[H]A (water-s), *'aw1a, green, blue -> OJ awo (-> MJ o, id.; *); (IE awei-, 'watery', listed under 9. aw(e)-, 'dampen, moisten, flow'); (cf. Arabic Hawiya, to be dark green)
(85)P[H]A-?A ('flat-plant'), OJ pa- -> *Fa:, leaf (of plant) [probably, earlier *bark] (-> MJ ha, id.; *); (IE -p in leup- [N[H]A-F[H]A, 'slipping' + P[H]A, 'flat' = 'bark' or 'leaf')
(86)N[H]A-?A ('wave-plant'='fresh'), *na:, green, leafy vegetables (-> MJ ná, id.; *); (*la:, *fresh, in la:i-; N[H]A-?A-$E)
(87)?A-R[H]A (top-rise), OJ *ar(a:), defect (-> MJ ará, id.; *); (IE *ere:- in Latvian re:ta, scar, listed under 5. er-)
(88)?A-RA (forehead-high), OJ *ara-, rude {*provocative}(-> MJ ara-i, id.; *); (IE ere(i)-, *provoke, listed under 3. er-)
(89)FO-TS[H]O (around-revolve), OJ *woto(:), old (-> MJ oto-, 'adult' in oto-k, male; oto-na, adult; 331); (IE wet-, *old, *yeared)
(90)
(91)SO-$E-RO (skin-like-very), *'syero, white (<- *so'yero) -> OJ siro- (-> MJ shiro, id.; *); (IE possibly *sei-, *white, in *sei-mo, *very white, in Welsh hufen, cream (*soimeno), listed incorrectly (?) under sei-)
(92)HA-?A-$E-S[H]A ('air + stative = lightness-like-condition) *ha:yesa, quickness (-> MJ hyasa, id.; *); (IE *e:is-, listed under 1. eis-, move fast); if this word is attested in OJ as paya, then the correct derivation may be from PF[H]E-$E, "spark-like", seen in IE 3. sp(h)e:(i)-, "progress"
(93)HA-?A-$E (see #92), *ha:i, ash[es] (-> MJ hai, id.; *); (IE 4. a/a:i-; in ai-dh-, *ash)
(94)PF[H]A-HA ('browsed'), OJ pa -> *F1a: (<-*F1ah1), tooth (-> MJ há, id.; *); (IE pa:-; *pa:pa: [cf. Latin pa:pa], listed under pap(p)a)
(95)ME-T[?]SE ('tongue-extend=sweet'), *mede-, *sweet (-> MJ mede-ti, happy [TS[H]A -> -t = IE -ta:, continuing state + -i = IE -yo, adjectival]; (*medh-, listed under medhu-, which is ME-T[?]SE + HHA-F[H]A, 'waters')
(96)ME-NA-T[?]SE-FA-RO('tongue-thing=conversation+extend=mention-ing-very'), OJ *me(n)dura-si-, splendid (-> MJ mezura-shi, rare; 331); (IE *mendh-ro, listed under mendh-; the idea here is "very worthy of mention")
(97)
(98)MA-QA ('full-bend'), OJ *maga-, bend (-> MJ maga-ru; id.; *; also mageru, bend (transitive)); (IE meng-)
(99)MA-Q[H]A, ('full-hump'), OJ *mak-, wind, roll; (-> MJ mak-u, id.; *); (IE menk-, listed under men(6)k-)
*(100)SA-Q[H]A-RO-$E ('strong-hump-very=high-like'), OJ *'sakari-, height (-> sakari, id.; *); (IE *sank-ro+i, listed under sak-; the ancient idea of "holy" was that an object was raised to a height that would prevent accidental contact; this would be equivalent to "dedication"); the same SA-Q[H]A is present in *saka-, heat (-> MJ saka-ri [-RE-$A]; *); (IE senk-; the idea is that an item to be heated is suspended over the fire; and SA-Q[H]A-$A, sake, wine ['heated'])
(not included under lexical headings)
suffices for a preliminary study to establish the
presumption of a genetic relationship.
to investigate these phonological correspondences in detail, see the
CORRESPONDENCESTABLE OF PL / IE / JAPANESE
NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS
conventions used in these essays, press here.
Japanese
The notation of the Old and Middle Japanese (OJ and MJ) forms and roots discussed in this essay loosely follows the style of Roy Andrew Miller(2).
Old Japanese
Revised Old Japanese
Consonants
k g
(ky) (gy) (sy)
t d s n
(tw) (gy)
F b, b1 F1 w, w1 m
y
r
h, h(1)(7)
Vowels
i, e, ë, a, o, ö, u
Old Japanese preserved the inherited vowels:
e a o
which represent open front, central, and back vowels, in stress-accented syllables.
1. In stress-unaccented syllables, PL E/A/O became a or 0.
2. Japanese i and u are the results of the vocalization of y and w in avocalic positions.
3. The combination of Vy and Vw resulted in mid front (e:) and mid back vowels (o:), which I have left, for simplicity's sake, in Miller's notation: ë and ö.
4. Miller's lengthened a ( ä ) and i ( ď ) are, in my opinion, not phonemic.
for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see
the
SUMMARY OF PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES FROM PL TO OLD JAPANESE
Assumptions
1. Palatal and velar glides were lost;
2. Glottalized stops were de-glottalized and voiced:
P[?] -> b; T[?] -> d; K[?] -> g;
a. b was subsequently spirantized to MJ
w except intervocalically, where it appears as b.
b. d+w becomes MJ *dz which is finally simplified to z in Modern Japanese.
3. Aspirated stops remained;
P[?] and P[H] -> p; T[?] and T[H] -> t; K[?] and K[H] -> k; but
a. p (ph) became OJ f, Miller's (and my) F except intervocalically, where it appears as b.
b. F became MJ (0);
1) FoF1a(P[H]O-F[H]A)-> MJ fu;
2) Fna (P[H]A-N[H]A) -> MJ fa.
4. Affricates were de-affricated but aspirated affricates lengthened the following vowel;
P[?]F and PF[H] -> b and p(V:);
T[?]S and TS[H] -> d and t(V:);
K[?]X and KX[H] -> g and k(V:);
a. p(V:) [phV:] became f(h)(V):, Miller's F and my F1(V:) except intervocalically, where it appears as b1.
b. after lengthening the vowel, F1(V:) became h(V:).
5. Nasals remain; aspirated nasals are de-aspirated but lengthen the following vowel:
M/M[H] -> m/m(V:); N/N[H] -> n/n(V:);
a. except Q/Q[H] , which results in (n)g and (n)k;
6. F -> w1; F[H] -> F1(V:); S -> s; S[H] -> s(V:);
a. w1o becomes MJ o;
b. F1(V:) -> MJ h;
c. the velar spirants, X and X[H], are de-spirantized to k and k(V:);
7. The voiceless laryngal stop, ?, becomes (0);
8. The voiceless laryngal fricative, H (/h/), becomes h(1).
9. The voiced pharyngal fricative, $, becomes y;
10. The voiceless pharyngal fricative HH (/hh/) becomes h(1).
11. The trills, R and R[H], become r and r(V:)
12. Lengthened vowels (V:) appear in Japanese with rising tone (').
In order for readers to judge the semantic plausibility of the analysis of Proto-Language (PL) compounds suggested here, I am including access to a table of Proto-Language monosyllables and the meanings I have provisionally assigned.
Most assignments can be exhaustively supported by data from actually attested forms but a few animates are very doubtful; and this list does not represent the "final" solution of these questions, which will only be approached when other scholars assist in refining it.
Patrick C. Ryan
Summer 1997
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca and Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco. 1995. The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution. New York etal. Helix Books. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Klimov, Georgij A. 1977. Tipologija Jazykov Aktivnogo Stroja. Moscow: Nauka
-------------------------1983. Printsipy Kontensivnoi Tipologij. Moscow: Nauka
Miller, Roy Andrew. 1967. The Japanese Language. Chicago& London: The University of Chicago Press
Nelson, Andrew Nathaniel. 1994. The Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary. Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company
Pokorny, Julius. 1959. Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wrterbuch. Volume I. Bern and Munich: Francke Verlag
Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1996. The Languages of Japan. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Storm, Hiroko (revision). 1993. Living Language Japanese Dictionary: Japanese-English - English-Japanese. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.
the latest revision of this document can be found
at
HTTP://WWW.GEOCITIES.COM/Athens/Forum/2803/comparison.JAPANESE.2.htm
Patrick C. Ryan * 9115 West 34th Street - Little Rock, AR 72204-4441* (501)227-9947
PROTO-LANGUAGE@WorldNet.att.net
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.